The Arsenal of Anarchy: Deconstructing Illicit Arms Proliferation and Contemporary Security Conundrums in Nigeria -By David Taiwo Ashaolu

Abstract

Nigeria, a nation brimming with potential, finds itself ensnared in a web of illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs), a situation that fuels insecurity and undermines the very fabric of its society. This study delves into the heart of this crisis, examining the dynamics of illicit SALW proliferation and its ramifications for contemporary security in Nigeria. Employing Robert King Merton’s (1938) strain theory as a theoretical compass, this research illuminates the nexus between persistent socio-economic challenges, systemic corruption, and the widespread availability of deadly arms. The findings reveal that persistent violent conflicts over land and resources, entrenched unemployment, pervasive poverty, corruption within law enforcement agencies, and porous borders synergistically contribute to the proliferation of illicit SALWs. The study further highlights the alarming escalation of kidnapping, banditry, and killings in states such as Benue, Niger, Kwara, Kebbi, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Zamfara, Katsina, and those in the South East, all inexorably linked to the uncontrolled spread of these weapons. In response, the study advocates for a multi-pronged approach that encompasses the implementation of comprehensive amnesty programmes, the establishment of robust alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, the provision of multifaceted support to victims of SALW-related violence, and the resolute tackling of systemic corruption within the security apparatus.

Introduction

Nigeria grapples with a relentless surge in the proliferation of illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs). These weapons, readily available and easily deployed, have become the implements of choice for a diverse array of actors, from insurgent groups to criminal gangs, each seeking to advance their agendas through force and intimidation. Over the past two decades, this phenomenon has evolved into a critical social issue, fuelling a diverse range of violent crimes and attracting significant scholarly attention globally. This crisis has profoundly impacted Sub-Saharan Africa, with Nigeria grappling with acute challenges related to SALW proliferation, prompting growing apprehension among policymakers and citizens alike (Essimbe, 2015; Olayiwola, 2017). Scholars posit that the prevalence of illicit SALWs in Nigeria is indicative of deep-seated social disorganisation and economic hardship, particularly within vulnerable rural communities.

The surge in illicit SALW proliferation has correlated with emerging crime trends, including armed banditry, cattle rustling, reprisal attacks, and a marked increase in kidnappings. These trends, largely facilitated by illicit SALWs, present considerable security challenges to Nigeria. The Inter-Governmental Action Group against Money Laundering in West Africa (GIABA) (2013) identifies sea, air, and land borders as primary entry points for smuggled SALWs, with known entry points including Idi Iroko, Seme, Warri, and the north-eastern states bordering Cameroon (Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe). In addition, the labyrinthine creeks of the Niger Delta facilitate SALW smuggling in exchange for resources or under-reported funds, compounding the challenge.

The Small Arms Survey (2015) emphasises the severity of the threat, estimating that 8 million SALWs circulate in West Africa, with approximately 77,000 held by organised criminal groups. Nigeria faces persistent obstacles in controlling illicit SALWs due to their widespread circulation (Oji & Okeke, 2014; International Action Network on Small Arms, 2014).

Data on state-controlled weapons remain confidential; however, leakage from poorly maintained armouries increases accessibility for criminal networks (Onuaha, 2012; Hazen & Horner, 2014; United Nations Development Programme, 2015). The paucity of comprehensive data on SALWs hinders the establishment of baselines for monitoring proliferation trends (Essimbe, 2015; Oji & Okeke, 2014; Small Arms Survey, 2015). Nonetheless, a UNDP study (2015) estimates that 4.9 million of the 8 million illicit weapons in West Africa are located within Nigeria’s borders.

The influx of illicit SALWs can be traced to conflicts in Libya, where inadequate control over stockpiles led to trafficking through land borders, particularly in northern Nigeria (Essimbe, 2015; Small Arms Survey, 2015). Furthermore, artisanal production of arms outside government oversight contributes to the proliferation and misuse of firearms. From 1999 to 2003, illicit SALW-related violence resulted in over 10,000 deaths (Francis, 2010; UNDP, 2015).

Since 2009, the Boko Haram insurgency, facilitated by illicit SALWs, has become a leading cause of death and displacement in the Lake Chad Basin, resulting in over 28,700 fatalities and displacing 2.3 million people (Oxfam International Organization, 2017). Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Nigeria increased by 300% between 2014 and 2017 (International Organization for Migration, 2017). ACAPS (2016) reports over 15,000 civilian deaths due to Boko Haram attacks involving SALWs, with an additional 12,000 fatalities in clashes between Boko Haram and Nigerian security forces, underscoring the catastrophic impact of these weapons on human security.

The proliferation of illicit SALWs carries both short- and long-term repercussions, including immediate casualties among students and lasting impacts on education quality (Joda & Abdulrashid, 2015). The abduction of over 219 schoolgirls by Boko Haram in Chibok in 2014 exemplifies the increasing frequency and lethality of SALW-related school attacks (Joda & Abdulrashid, 2015). Moreover, the prevailing climate of insecurity has engendered widespread fear and trauma, inhibiting community development and social cohesion.

The uncontrolled spread of illicit SALWs poses a grave threat to Nigeria’s social fabric. Recognising this, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2015 adopted Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16, emphasising the promotion of peaceful and inclusive societies through arms control and violence reduction. Target 16.4 specifically addresses the reduction of illicit arms flows, aligning with Indicator 16.4.2, which advocates for the recording and tracing of seized SALWs (United Nations General Assembly, 2015), signalling a global commitment to addressing this pervasive challenge.

Conceptual Clarification

Small arms are defined as portable weapons operable by a single individual, typically made of metal with wooden or rubber handles (Control Arms Campaign, 2014). Examples include revolvers, pistols, rifles, sub-machine guns, and light machine guns (United Nations, 1997). Light weapons encompass heavy machine guns, grenade launchers, anti-tank and anti-aircraft missile systems, and mortars of less than 100 mm calibre (United Nations, 1997). These weapons, easily accessible and readily deployable, constitute the primary instruments of violence in Nigeria’s conflict zones.

Illicit SALWs have been implicated in numerous terrorist attacks and conflicts across Sub-Saharan Africa, often recycled among fighters, security forces, and war profiteers (Small Arms Survey, 2015). Their proliferation is facilitated by their low cost, wide availability, increasing lethality, simplicity, durability, portability, and diverse uses (Religions for Peace, 2015), rendering them attractive to both state and non-state actors seeking to exert power and influence.

Contemporary Security Challenges in Nigeria (2023-2025)

The contemporary security landscape in Nigeria is marked by an alarming surge in incidents of kidnapping, banditry, communal clashes, and killings, all catalysed by the pervasive proliferation of illicit SALWs. States such as Benue, Niger, Kwara, Kebbi, Sokoto, Maiduguri, Zamfara, Katsina, and those in the South East are particularly afflicted, underscoring the nationwide scope of this multifaceted crisis (Nigeria Watch, 2025).

Benue State: Persistent farmer-herder conflicts, inflamed by the availability of illicit weapons, have culminated in mass displacements, gruesome massacres, and a perpetual state of insecurity (Ibrahim, 2018). The unyielding violence has thwarted peace-building initiatives and amplified socio-economic tensions, leaving communities ravaged and traumatised. Recent reports from 2024 highlight the resurgence of armed groups, leading to heightened fears among residents (The Punch, 2024).

Niger State: This state has witnessed a notable spike in banditry and kidnapping, with armed groups relentlessly targeting rural communities and major highways (Premium Times, 2025). The porous borders with neighbouring states facilitate the unhindered movement of bandits and illicit weapons, rendering it exceedingly challenging for security forces to effectively contain the escalating violence. In late 2025, a series of audacious attacks on schools in Niger State garnered international condemnation, underscoring the vulnerability of educational institutions (Sahara Reporters, 2025).

Zamfara and Katsina States: These states remain epicentres of banditry, with armed groups engaging in cattle rustling, kidnapping for ransom, and indiscriminate killings (The Guardian, 2025). The proliferation of illicit SALWs has empowered these bandits, enabling them to challenge state authority and inflict widespread suffering on local populations. Despite concerted efforts by security forces, the situation remains volatile, with reports of increased coordination among bandit groups (Channels Television, 2024).

South East States: The rise of secessionist movements and related violence has engendered heightened insecurity in the South East, with reports of armed groups engaging in frequent clashes with security forces and civilians (Vanguard, 2025). The proliferation of illicit SALWs has fuelled this violence, posing a significant threat to regional stability. The imposition of sit-at-home orders by separatist groups has further disrupted economic activity and exacerbated the prevailing climate of fear (Daily Trust, 2024).

Sokoto and Kebbi States: These North West states have witnessed an upsurge in banditry and cattle rustling. In 2023, reports emerged detailing how bandits, armed with sophisticated weapons, routinely raid villages, pillaging resources, abducting residents for ransom, and engaging in wanton destruction of property (Leadership Newspaper, 2023). The frequency and intensity of these attacks have led to mass displacement and food insecurity in the affected areas, exacerbating the already precarious socio-economic conditions. Local communities, feeling abandoned by the government, have formed vigilante groups to protect themselves, further escalating tensions and leading to more violence (This Day, 2024).

Maiduguri (Borno State): Despite concerted efforts to combat Boko Haram insurgency, the proliferation of illicit weapons continues to fuel sporadic attacks and maintain an atmosphere of unease. Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF) members, volunteers aiding the military, often possess small arms for self-defense, but this has also increased the risk of misuse (International Alert, 2023). Moreover, the influx of displaced people into the city has strained resources, contributing to social tensions that can be exploited by extremist groups (UNHCR, 2024).

These incidents are indicative of a broader trend of escalating violence and insecurity, driven by the proliferation of illicit SALWs and exacerbated by systemic corruption within the security apparatus.

Issues in the Proliferation of Illicit SALWs in Nigeria

The proliferation of illicit SALWs represents a significant impediment to Nigeria’s sustainable development, undermining social, economic, medical, and political infrastructure (Control Arms Campaign, 2014). The misuse of firearms has resulted in numerous casualties, displacements, and a pervasive climate of fear.

Seizures of illegal arms at Nigerian borders underscore the severity of the issue. For instance, in 2010, security forces intercepted 13 containers at Apapa Wharf in Lagos, containing grenades, rocket launchers, explosives, and assault rifles disguised as glass and wood (Ikoh, 2013). Similarly, the Oyo State Police Command seized a large cache of arms from a suspected bank robbery squad, including rifles, magazines, and ammunition (Uwa & Anthony, 2015).

Establish comprehensive support services for victims of SALW-related violence, including medical care, psychological counseling, financial assistance, and legal aid. These services should be easily accessible and provided in a culturally sensitive manner.

Ensure that vulnerable groups, such as women and children, receive targeted support to address their specific needs. This may include specialized counselling services, safe shelters, and educational opportunities.

Address Unemployment and Poverty

Implement economic empowerment initiatives, such as vocational training programmes, microfinance schemes, and entrepreneurship support, to create job opportunities and reduce poverty. These initiatives should be designed to target the most vulnerable segments of the population, such as unemployed youths and women.

Promote sustainable agriculture and rural development to improve livelihoods and reduce competition for scarce resources. This may involve providing farmers with access to modern farming techniques, improved seeds, and irrigation systems.

Strengthen Governance and Rule of Law

Enhance the capacity and effectiveness of security institutions, including the police, military, and judiciary, through training, equipment upgrades, and improved accountability mechanisms. This may involve providing security personnel with specialized training in human rights, conflict resolution, and community policing.

Promote transparency and accountability in governance at all levels to reduce corruption and build public trust. This may involve implementing open government initiatives, strengthening anti-corruption agencies, and ensuring that public officials are held accountable for their actions.

Ensure that all citizens have equal access to justice and that the rule of law is applied fairly and consistently. This may involve strengthening legal aid services, improving court efficiency, and promoting judicial independence.

Secure Borders and Control Arms Trafficking

Deploy modern technology, such as UAVs, surveillance systems, and border sensors, to enhance border security and detect illicit arms trafficking. This may involve investing in advanced surveillance equipment, training border security personnel in the use of this equipment, and establishing effective intelligence-sharing mechanisms.

Enhance the training and capacity of customs and immigration officials to effectively monitor and control cross-border movements. This may involve providing customs and immigration officials with specialized training in arms trafficking detection, border security procedures, and international law.

Strengthen regional cooperation with neighbouring countries to share information, conduct joint patrols, and coordinate law enforcement efforts to disrupt arms trafficking networks. This may involve establishing joint task forces, conducting joint training exercises, and implementing harmonized border security protocols.

Combat Corruption

Implement stringent anti-corruption measures within law enforcement agencies, including enhanced screening processes, regular audits, and whistleblower protection mechanisms. This may involve establishing an independent oversight body to monitor the activities of law enforcement agencies and investigate allegations of corruption.

Strengthen the capacity of anti-corruption agencies to investigate and prosecute corruption cases effectively. This may involve providing anti-corruption agencies with additional resources, training, and legal authority.

Promote a culture of integrity and ethical conduct within the public sector through awareness campaigns, training programmes, and disciplinary measures. This may involve establishing codes of conduct for public officials, conducting ethics training, and implementing sanctions for violations of ethical standards.

Promote Community-Based Initiatives

Support community-based initiatives that foster peace and reconciliation, build trust between communities, and empower local actors to resolve disputes peacefully. This may involve providing funding and technical assistance to community-based organizations that are working to promote peace and security.

Engage religious leaders, civil society organizations, and community members in peace-building efforts to address the root causes of conflict and promote social cohesion. This may involve organizing interfaith dialogues, peace workshops, and community forums.

Engage Civil Society and Local Communities

Actively engage civil society organizations and local communities in the development and implementation of strategies to combat SALW proliferation. This may involve establishing a multi-stakeholder forum to facilitate dialogue and collaboration between government agencies, civil society organizations, and local communities.

Support community-based initiatives that promote peace, security, and social cohesion. This may involve providing funding and technical assistance to community-based organizations that are working to address the root causes of conflict and promote reconciliation.

Strengthen Regional and International Cooperation

Enhance cooperation with regional and international partners to address cross-border arms trafficking and transnational crime. This may involve participating in regional and international initiatives to combat arms trafficking, sharing intelligence with law enforcement agencies in other countries, and providing technical assistance to countries that are struggling to control arms proliferation.

Ratify and implement international treaties and protocols related to arms control and disarmament. This may involve enacting domestic legislation to implement the provisions of these treaties and protocols, establishing national mechanisms for monitoring and enforcing compliance, and participating in international efforts to promote arms control and disarmament.

By implementing these comprehensive recommendations, Nigeria can effectively address the arsenal of anarchy, reduce violence and insecurity, and promote sustainable development.

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