Climate Change In Africa: Drought And Water Stress -By Dr Mohamed Chtatou

Food and water insecurity, population displacements, competition for land, health risks: the exposure of the African continent to the impacts of climate change is contributing to the emergence of numerous security risks for the populations. [i] This is due in particular to the large share of agriculture and fishing in the economies, sectors that are particularly sensitive to climate variations, as well as the relatively low adaptation capacity of countries.[ii]

Climate change in Africa

First of all, an increase in average temperature has been observed throughout the continent (as in the rest of the world). Some regions have already exceeded +1.5°C compared to the pre-industrial era. According to a pessimistic emissions scenario, which, however, in view of the commitments made by States in terms of mitigation, appears likely: the average temperature in Africa could exceed +3.5°C in some regions, and at least +2°C, by 2050. However, the more the average temperature increases, the more the other impacts intensify: in strength and in frequency.[iii]

The report entitled “State of the Climate in Africa 2021”, published on September 8, 2022 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) indicates that African countries will soon experience water stress.[iv]

It explains that the rate of temperature rise in Africa, about +0.3°C per decade from 1991 to 2021, is faster than the global average and that the average near-surface air temperature in Africa is estimated to be 0.68°C above the baseline.

The report is based on the fact that the surface area of Lake Chad has shrunk by 90% since 1960, resulting in a reduction in arable land, a decline in fish production, and a loss of biological biodiversity in the Chad Basin.

In addition, according to the same report, about 418 million people in Africa do not have access to safe drinking water, 779 million people lack basic sanitation services, and 839 million lack basic hygiene services.[v]

For a more integrated management of water resources, the WMO report proposes to African countries, transboundary cooperation, through data exchange and knowledge sharing, crop diversification, and the use of more drought-resistant crops.

This is in addition to the adoption of investment policies for water resources management and sanitation.

This is first of all the case of heat waves phenomena, which affect the whole continent, particularly the Horn of Africa. These heat waves have of course harmful consequences on the populations, but also on the fauna and flora. Also linked to the increase in average temperature, there is a significant increase in desertification phenomena which, according to the FAO, could cause the loss of 2/3 of the continent’s arable land by 2030. The Sahel strip is particularly concerned, but also the east coast and the south and north of the continent.

The disruption of the climate system is also causing changes in rainfall patterns, with significant regional disparities. The decrease in precipitation contributes to drought phenomena, which are already strongly affecting the North and South of the continent. This trend will continue in the coming years: the percentage of the decade spent in drought in 2050 could exceed 80% in North Africa, and in the South of the continent. [vi]

Manifestations of climate change

Conversely, changes in precipitation patterns can also cause increased rainfall, often resulting in floods, which are sometimes coupled with landslides. East Africa is a particularly vulnerable region to both droughts and floods that follow one another and undermine natural and social systems.

Another manifestation of climate change on the continent is the rise in sea levels. Here it is of course the countries with a coastline that are affected, and in Africa one notes a particularly significant rise from Mauritania to the Gulf of Guinea. In addition, populations located in island states, such as the Seychelles, Madagascar, or Mauritius are particularly threatened as their territory is submerged by water.  The southwestern part of the continent is also affected, with a rise of about 5mm per year. In addition, the increase in CO2 emissions, and the amount stored by the oceans, is causing an acidification of the water that impacts plant and animal organisms.

Finally, as stated in the latest IPCC report released in August 2021,[vii] climate change is accompanied by an increase in the frequency and intensity of natural disasters of climate origin. In addition to flooding, there is also an increased occurrence of storms and cyclones. We are thinking here, particularly of the east coast of Africa, especially Mozambique, which has been affected in the last two years by particularly violent cyclones, at very close intervals.

The phenomenon has become more severe in recent years due to climate change induced by man, says the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [viii] Its disruptions are such that they reduce the frequency and quantity of rainfall, plunging states into drought. This means that water reserves cannot recharge as they should in order to maintain a hydrological balance.

Drought in the Horn of Africa

Four failing rainy seasons have caused the worst drought in at least 40 years in the Horn of Africa. The phenomenon is global. On all continents, millions of livestock have died, and crops have been destroyed. In Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia in particular, the inhabitants are living in near famine conditions. In total, more than one million people have left their homes in search of food and water.[ix]In early 2022, the WFP called for funds to help the 13 million people threatened by hunger in the Horn of Africa.

By mid-2022, after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine captured the attention of global donors and sent food and fuel prices soaring, WFP estimated that 20 million people in the region needed urgent assistance. This number will reach “at least 22 million by September,” WFP said in a statement. It “will continue to increase and hunger will worsen if the next rainy season (from October to December) fails and the most vulnerable people do not receive humanitarian assistance,” the UN agency added, saying that “famine is now a serious risk, especially in Somalia.[x]

Concerning the severe drought in the Horn of Africa, WMO argues that this will continue for the fifth year on end, so there is no relief in sight:[xi]

‘’As millions of people in the Greater Horn of Africa have already “suffered the longest drought in 40 years,” parts of the region are bracing for a fifth consecutive failed rainy season, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has reported.

The forecast for October to December, issued at the Greater Horn of Africa Seasonal Climate Outlook Forum, shows high chances of drier than average conditions across most parts of the region, which will further worsen the crisis for millions of people.

“It pains me to be the bearer of bad news,” said Guleid Artan, Director of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) – WMO’s climate centre for East Africa. 

 “Sadly, our models show with a high degree of confidence that we are entering the fifth consecutive failed rainy season in the Horn of Africa”.’’

East Africa faces its worst drought in 40 years

The East and Horn of Africa region could experience one of the worst droughts in its history. Not since 1981 have temperatures been so high and rainfall so low. The consequences for the population are already severe and could intensify. In Kenya, Ethiopia, and Somalia, millions of people are already suffering the consequences of global warming. The rainy season is approaching, but the forecast is not good. No more so than in the last four years.

Four years of droughts that have left the eastern part of the continent dry, depleted, or destroyed crops, wiped out herds of cattle, and reduced water supplies. “Between 15 and 16 million people are already in need of immediate food aid,” estimates Ethiopian Workneh Gebeyehu, executive secretary of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development. And the number of drought victims is expected to increase further: “according to the latest expert estimates, about 29 million people are facing high levels of food insecurity,” he goes on to say.

In Ethiopia, Gode Hospital has seen the situation worsen in six months. The number of patients has tripled, with the vast majority suffering from malnutrition. And among the first victims, the children. “The drought has affected the whole community, especially children, especially children under five. So we are receiving many malnourished children, more than the children we saw six months ago. The number of admissions has increased from five patients a day to 15 patients a day,” said Dr. Mahamed Shafi, director of Gode Hospital, before adding, “this drought is the worst we have seen in the last 20 years.’’

Thus, six million Somalis, or 40% of the population, are facing extreme levels of food insecurity and “a very real risk of famine in the coming months,” worries the World Food Program. In Kenya, 500,000 people are headed for a food crisis, particularly in northern communities that rely on livestock.

The World Food Program had reacted earlier this year by launching an appeal for funding. Only 4% of the amount had been raised. The amount has just been revised upwards: 473 million dollars (438 million euros) are needed to provide rapid and effective aid in the region.

“We know from past experience that to avert a humanitarian disaster, responding quickly is vital, but our ability to initiate the response has been limited by a lack of funding to date,” said Michael Dunford, WFP’s regional director for East Africa.

The fear of not being able to respond in time. Above all, there is the fear of a repeat of the 2011 humanitarian disaster in Somalia, when 260,000 people died of hunger, half of them children under the age of six.

For the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), this drought extends beyond food and water security: [xii]

‘’The rains have stopped falling in East Africa. Over four consecutive seasons, the land has remained dry, resulting in one of the worst droughts in decades. The region is sadly no stranger to drought. For example, the historic drought in Ethiopia and Sudan in 1985 claimed the lives of 450,000 people.

This time, records are being broken. Parts of Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya are experiencing the driest conditions and hottest temperatures since satellite record-keeping began. As a result, ongoing estimates indicate that up to 21.1 million people face high levels of acute food insecurity as crops fail, livestock die and water sources dry up.

The impacts of drought extend beyond food and water security, with drastic socio-economic and environmental impacts, including migration, natural resource degradation, and weak economic performance.’’

Ethiopia is in the grip of a terrible drought

It is barely mentioned in the world news, but Ethiopia has been in the grip of a terrible drought for months. Nearly eight million people, including four million children, are at risk of suffering a severe food crisis and losing their livelihoods. In recent years, Ethiopia has faced several concomitant crises: first, it had to deal with an invasion of locusts, which led to major crop losses, starting in late 2019. This was compounded by the coronavirus pandemic as well as various violent conflicts over land and resources. In addition, there has been almost no rain since late 2020, five consecutive rainy seasons. Ethiopia, but also Somalia, and Kenya, are in the grip of a catastrophic drought. This is one of the worst droughts in the Horn of Africa in 40 years.

Once again, there was no rain during the rainy season. In southern Ethiopia, rainfall was more than 55 percent below average. This is the fourth rainy season without rain. A very sad record. According to forecasts for the next rainy season, which is expected to take place between March and May 2023, rainfall will again be below average. The situation for the population is dramatic: herding families are losing their livestock; with rising energy and food prices, farming families are barely able to feed themselves; children are falling ill foflack of clean water in schools. The number of famine-related deaths is increasing.

It is estimated that in Ethiopia, more than two million livestock have already died due to a lack of food and water. Twenty-two million animals are at risk of dying as a result. In a region like the Southern Lowlands of Ethiopia, where rivers and natural springs are scarce, the consequences on the population’s diet are dramatic. In fact, the population is composed mainly of herder families and cattle breeders. In all, some eight million Ethiopians are facing starvation.

On this acute human drama, Adam Wentworth writes: [xiii]

“For a country with a long and devastating relationship with dry weather, it’s hard to conceive of the current crisis as being different to others. But as the UN recently reported, drought conditions are now the worst for 40 years, with some communities calling it “the unseen”.

Ethiopia’s vast southern reaches are on the frontline of this crisis.

These areas, bordering Kenya and Somalia, extend for tens of thousands of square miles, covering desert, semi-arid and savanna lands. In a country with a population of over 110 million, these regions are some of the most remote, but more than 20 million people are estimated to be suffering under the drought with a million people in dire need of food assistance.

Many families have no choice but to seek alternative sources of income or to seek support from the authorities and humanitarian organizations. More and more internally displaced people, who are no longer able to support themselves in their home areas, are moving to the outskirts of cities. The situation is now also affecting wealthy families. The traditional support systems within communities, in which the wealthier people help the poorer ones, are being put to the test. Today, they all depend on external support.

Water stress and its injurious consequences

Under the combined pressure of population growth, lack of infrastructure, and global warming, Africa will be particularly exposed to large-scale water shortages in the coming years. ^[xiv]  This economic, social, and existential threat could lead to new waves of migration to Europe.

A reference study published by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ^[xv] on October 5, 2021 has drawn up a damning report on water stress at the international level. To sum up, almost everywhere in the world – but particularly in Africa – situations of water stress are multiplying, defining the threshold where water availability is less than 500 m3 per year and per person.

On this important issue, Prof. Petteri Taalas, Secretary-General of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) writes: ^[xvi]

“Increasing temperatures are resulting in global and regional precipitation changes, leading to shifts in rainfall patterns and agricultural seasons, with a major impact on food security and human health and well-being.”

Thus, in the last twenty years, the duration and number of droughts have increased by nearly 30% on the continent. By 2030, according to the WMO report, 118 million Africans will be exposed to droughts, floods and extreme heat if adequate measures are not taken. Currently, 40% of the world’s people without access to a sustainable supply of drinking water live in sub-Saharan Africa. Less than a month before the next World Water Forum, the IPCC warns, in its latest report dated February 28, 2022, on the water consequences of global warming and proves once again the need for a global mobilization in the face of the humanitarian drama to come. [xvii]

The least access to drinking water has deleterious consequences that are both transversal and complex for the countries affected. They are of three kinds:

• They are already sanitary: The lack of sanitation capacity is a vector of epidemic diffusion, especially in urban centers, where populations are extremely concentrated and where there is strong demographic pressure. About 3,000 people die every day in Africa from water-related diseases. By 2025, Africa’s urban population is expected to reach 750 million, surpassing the total population of Europe, increasing the risks. By 2022, Lagos could have 15.4 million inhabitants, Kinshasa 17.8 million, and Cairo 12.5 million.
• They are agricultural: Water scarcity has logical consequences on irrigation capacity and yields and contributes to weakening food security in some countries already under stress.
• They are economic: The time lost by households to collect water – estimated at 33 minutes in rural areas and 25 in urban areas – takes away 1 point of GDP from the continent each year and often deprives children of an intellectual and technical education that is fundamental to the socio-economic development of countries. As for the lack of water infrastructure, it is estimated to cost sub-Saharan Africa 5% of GDP each year.

But the water stress situation can also push people, mostly from the middle class, to look for better prospects outside of their country of origin and thus become climate change refugees. [xviii]This is highlighted by a recent report of The World Bank: ^[xix]

‘’Climate change is fueling water-induced migration, as rainfall variability in particular drives people to search for better prospects elsewhere. Seventeen of the world’s countries – home to 25% of the world’s population – are already experiencing extreme water stress. Water challenges are disproportionately felt in the developing world, with more than 85% of people affected by rainfall variability living in low- or middle-income countries. 

This does not mean that there are waves of poor “water refugees” migrating to escape drought. In reality, it is the poorest who often lack the means to migrate, even when doing so might improve their livelihoods and prospects. Residents of poor countries are four times less likely to move than residents of middle-income countries.’’

Water stress: Algeria in the worst category

The term water stress is used when the available water resources are lower than the demand. The UN considers any country that withdraws 25% of its water resources each year to be under water stress. Many countries on the planet are in this situation. Even if the world average of withdrawal is lower than the threshold of 18%, there are however huge disparities between different areas of the globe.

The World Resources Institute’s mapping shows a zone of 44 countries where water stress levels will be “high” or “extremely high” during the period under consideration. Seventeen countries will experience a “critical” level, including Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, and Spain. The countries in this category will see their resources pumped up to 80% each year.[xx]

Other areas of the world are safe with a rate of resource use of only 19%, less than the 25% threshold. These are the Scandinavian countries, Canada, Russia, Brazil, and those of the Great Green Wall of Africa.

Without being seriously affected, many European countries will also experience water stress. This is particularly true of France, where water withdrawal levels are between 20 and 39% of available resources.

The indicators taken into account for the realization of the mapping are urbanization, demography, economic development, and climate change. According to the think-tank, water stress is accentuated by climate change, intensive agriculture, and the population explosion.

Algeria is among the countries most exposed to the risk of water shortage in the next 20 years. A map made by an American think-tank highlights the areas of the planet where water stress will be the most marked by 2040. Algeria is in the worst category.

As a result of the scarcity of rainfall and prolonged periods of drought, Algeria is now a country “strongly arid,” said on July 17, 2022 an official at the Ministry of Agriculture.

“Algeria has switched from an arid country to a strongly arid country, especially in the western areas of the country where it was found a shift of bioclimatic stages of about 150 kilometers to the north, “said Khaled Ben Mohamed, Director General of the Office of Rural Studies and Statistics at the Ministry of Agriculture (Bureau National d’Études pour le Développement Rural (BNEDER)), in an interview with the Algerian Radio Channel III.[xxi]Before indicating that “the shift in the vegetative cycles of crops has made the production” agricultural in Algeria more complex. “We must get out of the traditional methods of production, hence the interest to turn to technology and partnerships to help farmers cope with these constraints,” he went on to say.

In general, the interest in technology use will, according to the director general of Bneder, “produce plant material that is adapted to short cycles and does not grow too high. “With regard to potato production, in particular, the interest would be, according to him, “to develop production methods that do not have very large ecological footprints.” The BNEDER director general believes that in the agricultural sector, all sectors are important, “but some are strategic because they are of primary importance.’’

According to him, the strategic sectors are cereal production, fodder production, milk production, and market gardening, starting with potato production. “It is essential to maintain the production levels of these sectors, if not improve them. There is still considerable room for improvement,” he said. Before stressing that the production of seeds is “extremely strategic” for Algeria, because “it is a field that is part of national sovereignty.’’

On the subject of national agricultural policy, Mr. Ben Mohamed also said that “everything that is done in terms of strategy is based on improving the level of satisfaction of food needs of the population and the supply of agricultural products in sufficient quantities and throughout the year.”[xxii]

Algeria has a level of consumption of drinking water of 450 cubic meters per capita per year, while international standards are at 1000 cubic meters. The country has invested heavily over the past two decades in the water resources sector, about 60 billion dollars. It now has 81 dams and 600 small hydraulic works. With the projects underway, the number of seawater desalination plants should increase to 19. More than 2 million cubic meters of desalinated water are already produced.

Algeria currently draws its water from three different sources: surface water (dams), groundwater and d,esalination. Through this diversification of resources, the country intends to protect itself from climatic hazards, particularly recurrent drought episodes.

Extreme drought in Morocco

It was already known that the drought that Morocco is experiencing this year was one of the most serious for several years. Today, international organizations confirm the seriousness of the situation, indicating that it is, in fact, the worst period of drought in 40 years. This is what emerges, for example, from the latest report of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) on the state of the climate in 2022.[xxiii] Its main conclusions are reported by al-Ahdath al-Maghribia in its edition of November 23, 2022.

In the same report, the organization says that everything suggests that the last eight years have been the hottest the world has ever known, and this is mainly because of the accumulation of gases in the air. As the newspaper also points out, the WMO report is a reminder that people in developing countries are those who suffer the most from the impact of global warming, as evidenced by the recent floods in Pakistan, or the severe drought that has affected the Horn of Africa for a long time. Millions of people are already paying a high price for these impacts, with a financial cost estimated in the report at several billion dollars.

The WMO is not the only one to be alarmed by the current climate situation. Indeed, the international NGO Greenpeace has also just published a report on the climate. In it, says the Arabic-language dailyal-Ahdath al-Maghribia, it is indicated that Morocco suffers severely from the effects of climate change, like other countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, concerned by this report. Thus, the organization describes as “unprecedented” the drought that has hit the kingdom this year. Worse still, the NGO predicts a worsening of the situation in some agricultural areas, such as the Souss. Greenpeace has drawn up a list of six countries in this region that are likely to suffer the fatal consequences of climate change in the future. And Morocco is listed alongside Egypt, Algeria, Lebanon, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates. These countries should expect a significant increase in temperatures on their territories, which will naturally impact their food production.

The oases of Erfoud (situated in southeast Morocco) are suffering the full force of the effects of the drought that has hit the various regions of the Kingdom. Faced with the scarcity of water that has led to a decline in the production of date palms, farmers in the region are sounding the alarm.

In Erfoud, the drought has destroyed a large number of plantations, trees, and palm trees. Faced with this phenomenon, combined with fires and water stress, oasis agriculture is done in very difficult conditions, lament the farmers of Erfoud.

“The date palms are the only source of income for many families. We have no other employment opportunities in this region. We hope that the next rains will be able to feed the water tables,” said Abdellah, a farmer in Erfoud, in a statement to Le 360.[xxiv]He added, moreover, that the groundwater, which feeds the oases, is heavily impacted because of water stress and the delay in rainfall observed for over two years.

Interviewed by Le360, Abdessamad Hadri, an agricultural engineer, explains that to cope with the drought that threatens the oases, several measures have been taken, including reducing the cultivation of water-consuming varieties, such as watermelon, in the provinces facing water scarcity.

Fires, a disrupted rainy calendar and severe drought are all factors behind the decline in date palm production from 150,000 tons in previous years to 120,000 tons currently. “Certainly, in this situation characterized by water stress, the production of date palms has fallen this year. But the Green Morocco Plan has given an extremely important impetus to move from a production of 50,000 tons to an average of 140,000 tons annually, “notes BrahimHafidi, Director General of the National Agency for the Development of Oasis and Argan Zones (ANDZOA), in a statement for Le 360.

It should be recalled that the Generation Green strategy, launched by King Mohammed VI in 2020, will continue the work and focus on the development and planting of 5 million trees, including 3 million inside the palm groves for densification and 2 million outside the palm groves for an extension.

Conclusion: Dire consequences if nothing is done soon

Under the combined pressure of population growth, lack of infrastructure, and global warming, Africa will be particularly exposed to large-scale water shortages in the coming years. [xxv]This economic, social, and existential threat could lead to new waves of migration to Europe.

In addition to the logical sensitivity to the humanitarian disaster to come, the European Union may not be spared from this potential crisis. A World Bank report, released in March 2018,[xxvi] estimates that 86 million people in water distress are forced to migrate and logically tempted by Europe, which would be globally preserved. A figure to be added to the traditional migrations linked to economic vulnerabilities and armed conflicts. And above all, a migratory mass to be put into perspective with the “only” 2.7 million individuals who immigrated to the European Union in 2019, according to European Union data, whose management has been particularly delicate and a vector of major political tensions, contributing strongly to the rise of populism.[xxvii]

This World Bank report, points out that: [xxviii]

‘’The worsening impacts of climate change in three densely populated regions of the world could see over 140 million people move within their countries’ borders by 2050, creating a looming human crisis and threatening the development process, a new World Bank Group report finds

But with concerted action – including global efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions and robust development planning at the country level – this worst-case scenario of over 140m could be dramatically reduced, by as much as 80 percent, or more than 100 million people.

The report, Groundswell – Preparing for Internal Climate Migration, is the first and most comprehensive study of its kind to focus on the nexus between slow-onset climate change impacts, internal migration patterns and, development in three developing regions of the world: Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America.

It finds that unless urgent climate and development action is taken globally and nationally, these three regions together could be dealing with tens of millions of internal climate migrants by 2050. These are people forced to move from increasingly non-viable areas of their countries due to growing problems like water scarcity, crop failure, sea-level rise and storm surges.

These “climate migrants” would be additional to the millions of people already moving within their countries for economic, social, political or other reasons, the report warns.’’ 

The situation is critical. While the COP 27 negotiations are stalling on financing issues for poor countries, a report from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is sounding the alarm.[xxix] This document explains that the rate of temperature increase in Africa, about +0.3 ° C per decade from 1991 to 2021, is faster than the global average. This leads to the disappearance of glaciers and the shrinking of major lakes.

According to the report, “increased demand for water, coupled with limited and unpredictable supplies, is likely to exacerbate conflicts and displacement.’’ According to WMO estimates, water stress in Africa affects about 250 million people on the continent and could result in the displacement of 700 million people by 2030. In all likelihood, four out of five African countries will not have sustainably managed water resources by 2030.

The WMO estimates that half of the African countries do not have sufficient capacity to implement integrated water resources management. The UN agency estimates that “restrictions on water availability will hamper access to drinking water and risk triggering conflicts between people who are already struggling economically.’’

To better manage water resources, the WMO report proposes to African countries, transboundary cooperation, through data exchange and knowledge sharing, and diversification of crops. The document also stresses the importance of local investment policies for water resources management and sanitation.[xxx]

While the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 calls for universal access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2030, much remains to be done in Africa. According to the latest figures from the World Health Organization (WHO), only 30% of people in sub-Saharan Africa have access to safely managed drinking water.[xxxi] And according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), [xxxii]14 African countries are already suffering from water scarcity, with an additional 11 countries expected to face the same fate by 2025.

You can follow Professor Mohamed Chtatou on Twitter: @Ayurinu

End notes:

[i]Perkins, E. Patricia (ed.). Water and Climate Change in Africa Challenges and Community Initiatives in Durban, Maputo and Nairobi. London: Routledge, 2013.

Description: In the coming decades, countries around the world will face increasingly severe challenges related to global climate change. While the details vary from country to country, the impacts will be especially grave for marginalized people, whose access to food, potable water, and safe shelter may be threatened due to fluctuations in rainfall and temperature, and to extreme weather events. Because weather extremes are the main way that climate change manifests itself, water governance is a crucial aspect of climate change resilience. Following an overview of the ways climate change is affecting three cities in Africa, Water and Climate Change in Africa: Challenges and Community Initiatives in Durban, Maputo and Nairobi discusses the equity and climate justice implications, and then gives examples of ways in which a range of local community organizations are extending their current activities to address these challenges through innovative new programs and initiatives at the grassroots. This approach has implications for communities worldwide; it is a process of building on existing organizations’ aptitudes and strengths in the light of local knowledge of climate challenges, and creating partnerships to build equity-enhancing new methods of protecting people’s subsistence. This book should be of interest to climate change scholars, activists and policy-makers, as well as development studies researchers and practitioners.

[ii]Kuwornu, John K. M. (Ed.). Climate Change and Sub-Saharan Africa: The Vulnerability and Adaptation of Food Supply Chain Actors. Wilmington, Delaware, United States: Vernon Press, Series on Climate Change and Society, 2019.

Description: The adverse effects of climate change and climate variability have become some of the biggest environmental and socio-economic challenges for society, and for food supply chain actors, in particular. Serving as a serious inhibitor to the attainment of food security, climate change poses a fundamental threat to the availability, accessibility, stability and utilization of nutritious food and quality drinking water. The threat of this global phenomenon is not only apparent from the difficulties faced by all food supply chain actors, but is also felt acutely by households dependent on semi-subsistence agriculture. As evidenced by numerous studies conducted by the academic community, governmental and non-governmental organisations, climate change and climate variability will have disastrous effects on entire food supply chains across the world. This edited volume looks to address How vulnerable are food supply chain actors to climate change and climatic variability? What adaptation strategies are they adopting? How is the resilience of food supply chains being supported? Are they being financed and/or supported by international organizations to cope with climate change? And what governmental support are they receiving to help cope with climate change? This book is an essential resource for students, lecturers, researchers, agribusinesses, marketing firms, agricultural institutions, climate change adaptation institutions, policymakers and many others with an interest in agricultural development and the global food industry.

[iii]Alvar-Beltrán, Jorge. ‘’State of the Climate in Africa 2021’’, Researshgate, September 2022. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363952782_State_of_the_Climate_in_Africa_2021

Abstract: The publication provides a summary on the state of the climate indicators in 2021 including global temperatures trends and its distribution around the globe; most recent finding on Green House Gases concentration, Ocean indicators; Cryosphere with a particular emphasis on Arctic and Antarctic sea ice, Greenland ice sheet and glaciers and snow cover; Stratospheric Ozone; analysis of major drivers of inter-annual climate variability during the year including the El Niño Southern Oscillation and other Ocean and Atmospheric indices; global precipitation distribution over land; extreme events including those related to tropical cyclones and wind storms; flooding, drought and extreme heat and cold events. The publication also provides most recent finding on climate related risks and impacts including on food security, humanitarian and population displacement aspects and impact on ecosystems.

[iv] World Meteorological Organization. ‘’State of Climate in Africa highlights water stress and hazards”, September 8, 2022. https://public.wmo.int/en/media/press-release/state-of-climate-africa-highlights-water-stress-and-hazards#:~:text=Published&text=8%20September%202022%2C%20Maputo%2C%20Mozambique,and%20key%20lakes%20are%20shrinking.

[v] Bartram, J., & Cairncross, S. (2010). Hygiene, sanitation, and water: Forgotten foundations of health. PLoS Medicine, 7(11), e1000367. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000367

[vi]Msangi, Josephine Phillip (Editor). Combating Water Scarcity in Southern Africa: Case Studies from Namibia (Springer Briefs in Environmental Science). New York: Springer, 2014.

Description: This book offers a close examination of water scarcity as a developmental challenge facing member nations of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the interventions that have been implemented to combat the situation and the challenges still outstanding. The first chapter paints the backdrop of the water scarcity problem, reviewing historical approaches from the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro to the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) to the United Nations Rio+20 Conference on Sustainable Development (2012), and recapping principles and agreements reached during and after these conferences. Chapter two examines the Southern Africa region’s efforts to combat water scarcity including principles, policies and strategies and the responsibility of each member to implement them. Written by the editor, J.P. Msangi, the chapter describes Namibia’s efforts to ensure management of scarce water. Beyond enacting management and pollution control regulations and raising public awareness, Namibia encourages research to ensure attainment of the requirements of both the SADC Protocol and its own water scarcity management laws. The next three chapters offer Namibia-based case studies on impacts of pollution on water treatment; on the effects of anthropogenic activities on water quality and on the effects of water transfers from dams upstream of Von Bach dam. The final chapter provides detailed summaries of the issues discussed in the book, highlighting conclusions and offering recommendations. Combating Water Scarcity in Southern Africa synthesizes issues pertinent to the SADC countries as well as to other regions, and offers research that up to now has not been conducted in Namibia.

[vii] The World Bank. Going with The Flow: Water’s Role in Global Migration. August 23, 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/08/23/going-with-the-flow-water-s-role-in-global-migration

[viii] The United Nations. Climate Change. 2022. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/reports?gclid=Cj0KCQiAsoycBhC6ARIsAPPbeLuFe3R400QZXoCmVn5Td_A0ahi_6e76cux2uwsBwhmvXvhI9jvZoecaAsofEALw_wcB

[ix] UNICEF. ‘’The world cannot afford to ignore drought in the Horn of Africa’’, November 15, 2022, https://www.unicef.org/esa/press-releases/world-cannot-afford-ignore-drought-horn-africa-0

[x] World Food Program. ‘’13 million people facing severe hunger as drought grips the Horn of Africa’’, February 8, 2022. https://www.wfp.org/news/13-million-people-facing-severe-hunger-drought-grips-horn-africa

[xi]United Nations. ‘’ WMO: Greater Horn of Africa drought forecast to continue for fifth year’’, August 22, 2022. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/08/1125552

[xii] IFAD. ‘’ East Africa is experiencing its worst drought in decades. It’s time to invest in climate adaptation’’, August 22, 2022. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/latest/-/east-africa-is-experiencing-its-worst-drought-in-decades-it-s-time-to-invest-in-climate-adaptation?p_l_back_url=%2Ffr%2Fweb%2Flatest%2Fgallery

[xiii]Wentworth, Adam. “Drought is hitting Ethiopia harder than ever”, Climate Home News, October 27, 2022. https://www.climatechangenews.com/2022/10/27/drought-is-hitting-ethiopia-harder-than-ever/#:~:text=Ethiopia%20knows%20drought.,example%20of%20drought%20to%20date.

[xiv] United States Agency for International Development. (2017). Real impact: West Africa. West Africa water supply, sanitation, and hygiene program. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/RI_WA_WASH_508.pdf

[xv]World Meteorological Organization.Wake up to the looming water crisis, report warns. October 5, 2021. https://public.wmo.int/en/media/press-release/wake-looming-water-crisis-report-warns

[xvi] Ibid.

[xvii] IPCC. ‘’Climate change: a threat to human wellbeing and health of the planet. Taking action now can secure our future’’, February 28, 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/02/28/pr-wgii-ar6/

[xviii]Rashad, S. ‘’African Climate Refugees: Environmental Injustice and Recognition’’, Open Journal of Political Science, 10, 2020, pp. 546-567. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=101763

Abstract: The aim of the study is to discuss the effects of climate change in the African continent, which has suffered the repercussions of environmental and climate deterioration, most notably “environmental displacement” or what is called “climate refugees.” The findings demonstrate that although the phenomenon of “climate refugee” has become noticeable in the African continent, and despite concrete efforts by Africa, the lack of international recognition of the term “climate refugee” as well as the lack of environmental justice in distributing the burdens of global warming, remains an obstacle for the African continent for solving this problem. Therefore, international synergy is required to find common solutions. So the importance of the study lies in highlighting the insufficiency of African efforts to reduce the phenomenon of environmental refugees, and the lack of international efforts to establish a legal framework for this problem.

[xix] The World Bank. Going with The Flow: Water’s Role in Global Migration. August 23, 2021, op. cit.

[xx] Chtatou, Mohamed. ‘’Le stress hydrique au Maghreb’’, Oumma, July 19, 2022. https://oumma.com/le-stress-hydrique-au-maghreb/

[xxi] B.L. ‘’Sécheresse : l’Algérie est devenue un « pays fortement aride »’’, TSA, July 17, 2022. https://www.tsa-algerie.dz/secheresse-lalgerie-est-devenue-un-pays-fortement-aride/

[xxii] Rédaction. ‘’Stress hydrique : l’Algérie dans la pire catégorie’’, TSA, November 24, 2022. https://www.tsa-algerie.com/stress-hydrique-lalgerie-dans-la-pire-categorie/

[xxiii] World Meteorological Organization. 2022 State of Climate Services: Energy (WMO-No. 1301). 2022. https://library.wmo.int/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=22136#.Y4MmeXbMLIU

[xxiv] El Aouni, Fatima Zahra & Khadija Sebbar. ‘’ A cause de la sécheresse, les oasis d’Erfoud face à un avenir incertain’’, Le 360, November 26, 2022, https://fr.le360.ma/societe/a-cause-de-la-secheresse-les-oasis-derfoud-face-a-un-avenir-incertain-271102

[xxv] AFDB. The Africa Water Vision for 2025: Equitable and Sustainable Use of Water for Socioeconomic Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia:Economic Commission for Africa. https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Generic-Documents/african%20water%20vision%202025%20to%20be%20sent%20to%20wwf5.pdf

[xxvi] The World Bank. Climate Change Could Force Over 140 Million to Migrate Within Countries by 2050: World Bank Report. March 19, 2018. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/03/19/climate-change-could-force-over-140-million-to-migrate-within-countries-by-2050-world-bank-report

[xxvii] Balfour, Rosa. ‘’The (Resistable) Rise of Populism in Europe and its Impact on European and International Cooperation’’, IEMed, IEMed Mediterranean Yearbook 2017. https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-resistable-rise-of-populism-in-europe-and-its-impact-on-european-and-international-cooperation/

[xxviii]The World Bank. Climate Change Could Force Over 140 Million to Migrate Within Countries by 2050: World Bank Report, op. cit.

[xxix] World Meteorological Organization. 2022 State of Climate Services: Energy (WMO-No. 1301), op. cit.

[xxx]Atangana, E. &Oberholster, P.J. ‘’Assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene target and theoretical modeling to determine sanitation success in sub-Saharan Africa’’, Environ Dev Sustain,2022. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10668-022-02620-z

Abstract: Accessing the status of clean drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene remains a challenge in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The current article contributes to the progress made by the WASH initiatives in ten SSA countries in eliminating open defecation by 2030, using theoretical data from 2017 to 2019. The authors used regression trend estimation to observe that rural and urban population growth had a statistically significant detrimental influence on the elimination of open defecation by 2030. According to the predicted data model, by 2030–2035, the urban population of SSA would be 65, 25, and 10 million in all the three categories of income groups. An increase in the number of modern pit users (C1) shows no improvement at the annual rate of change. The unimproved toilets and open-pit latrines (C2 and C3) show a linear growth rate, which expanded over time. Population growth, higher unemployment, and teen pregnancies contribute to this increase. Under current conditions, the curve of modern pit latrine users will increase linearly. Nigeria has the most significant number of spread pit latrine users, which has decreased linearly from 25 to 20% since 2017. It was evident that the power-law trend in Nigeria would increase the usage of unimproved pit latrines and open-pit latrines. Ghana had the highest rate (50%) of open-pit latrine users, while the data show that this situation remained stable (2001–2017). In the Democratic Rep. Congo, annual rates increased linearly from 25 to 33% (2000–2017), while Burundi was one of the countries in the region with the lowest number of open-pit latrine users, although the annual rate has increased from 6.13 to 11.75% since 2017 to 2019.

[xxxi] World Health Organization. (2022). Water sanitation and health: GLAAS 2018/2019 cycle. https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/water-sanitation-and-health/monitoring-and-evidence/wash-systems-monitoring/un-water-global-analysis-and-assessment-of-sanitation-and-drinking-water/2018-2019-cycle

[xxxii] WWF. ‘’The Facts on Water in Africa”, https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/waterinafricaeng.pdf